In the United States, an individual elected president may only serve two terms, eight years in all. The history of this tradition goes back over 200 years and has mostly held tight throughout the tumultuous history of the nation – broken just once.
This piece will document the history of the two-term precedent, how it faltered, and how it was restored going forward.
Setting The Precedent
Few men truly shaped the world of American politics more than first US President George Washington.
First elected with 100% of the Electoral Votes in the 1788-89 election, Washington’s outstanding popularity meant that he could, had he wanted, have been made a king or dictator for life. Instead, he chose to set exemplar of a two-term presidency by refusing to be nominated or stand in the 1796 presidential election.
Washington had become tired by a life of public service, retiring to a private life at his Mount Vernon estate. The President had actually wanted to step down much earlier, desiring to do so after his first term.
No mention of term limits was entrenched in the Constitution despite discussions at the 1787 Constitutional Convention.
The unofficial rule was furthered in 1808 by third US President Thomas Jefferson, who had won the presidency in 1800 and 1804. Three of the next four presidents served two terms too, helping enshrine the principle.
Ulysses S. Grant Becomes The First
The first major instance of president balloted for a third term was Ulysses S. Grant.
Leaving office in 1877 after having served two previous terms, Grant decided against seeking a third term due to a flagging economy and his administration being caught up in corruption scandals. As such, dark horse Rutherford B. Hayes was chosen, with William DeGregorio describing: “the clean Hayes candidacy would divert attention from the scandal-plagued Grant administration.”
Perhaps this was for the best as even his own Vice President was talking out against him. Indeed, VP Henry Wilson noted that Grant was less popular than Andrew Jackson and was now “the millstone around the neck of our party that would sink it out of sight.”
With Hayes not running in 1880, Grant was a forerunner and reportedly in talks with party leaders. During his time away, his speeches had drawn massive crowds across the world and been documented by The New York Herald.
Supported by the Stalwart wing of the Republican Party and on the first ballot won the most votes at 304, with closest competitor James G. Blaine on 285. The 18th President won the first 35 ballots, leading prominent Stalwart Roscoe Conkling to state: “Nothing but an act of God could prevent Grant’s nomination.”
In the end, it was no act of God but rather compromise candidate James A. Garfield who defeated Grant after winning the delegates supporting candidates James Blaine and John Sherman.
Biographer William Hesseltine puts forward the interesting idea that had Grant returned from his overseas expeditions six months later, he may have won. Grant did not appear too disheartened however, remarking: “I felt no disappointment at the result…I felt much relieved.”
Theodore Roosevelt: The First Nominated Third Term Trier
In 1909, Theodore Roosevelt left office after having served one partial term and one full one. He could leave the White House happy in the knowledge protege William Howard Taft would take over and continue on his progressive track record.
Yet an alienated Roosevelt soon came to despise the more conservative direction in which Taft was taking the party and – as mentioned before – took on Taft for the Republican Party nomination in 1912.
A cult of personality, Roosevelt was more popular amongst the party’s rank and file and won the majority of state primaries. Despite this, party bigwigs wrangled the convention results to allow a Taft victory in one of the most chaotic conventions in history.
Outraged, Roosevelt went onto form his own party to run for president, the Progressive Party – colloquially known as the “Bull Moose” Party. This adopted a rather radical plank, including female suffrage, social insurance, and a minimum wage amongst other policies.
Roosevelt’s Progressives effectively became the opposition, winning 88 ECVs and winning in states like Pennsylvania, Minnesota, and California. One of the best third party performances in US history, they left the Republicans in the dust – winning just two states with the worst performance ever by an incumbent president.
In terms of becoming POTUS again, Roosevelt expectedly fell far short, with his party splitting the vote alongside the Republicans, allowing the Democrats an easy victory with Woodrow Wilson emerging with 435 Electoral College Votes.
Woodrow Wilson Goes For The Trifecta
In 1920, President Wilson’s second term was coming to an end although try he might to prevent this by running again.
There were two big obstacles to this however.
One was his health. Wilson had suffered a severe stroke in 1919, leaving his left-hand-side paralysed and leaving him bed-bound whilst his wife helped take over presidential duties. Not only was he physically affected but he became depressed and prone to outbursts of emotion. His personal physician Dr Cary T. Grayson even remarked that another election campaign may kill Wilson.
The other problem was that his own Democratic Party – amongst which he was popular – simply did not want to break the three-term tradition (at least not yet!).
With the approval of First Lady Edith, Secretary of State Bainbridge Colby nominated Wilson at the convention.
Yet Wilson had little support. As biographer Alfred B. Rollins Jr. noted, “There was an enthusiastic demonstration for the president – but nothing more.”
The party did however adopt a Wilson-friendly plank, notably supporting US entry into the League of Nations.
Despite not winning, Wilson was still able to wield influence over his successor. The 1920 Democratic National Convention has been described as the “first time in a generation” that a recognised leader (such as Grover Cleveland, Wiliam Jennings Bryan, or Wilson himself) was not obvious.
His son-in-law and former Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo was the early frontrunner. Wilson refused to endorse him, thus blocking the nomination, allegedly in the hopes of deadlocking the convention, and making his own nomination more likely.
In the end, the convention eventually settled on James M. Cox, the former Governor of Ohio. His running mate was an up-and-coming young Democratic star who would later become president; talking of which…
FDR Pulls Off A Third AND A Fourth
Franklin D. Roosevelt is the only president in US history to serve more than two terms as president.
Ever since sweeping to power in the 1932 election, President Roosevelt had been immensely popular, with his progressive New Deal policies helping him crush opponent Alf Landon in his 1936 re-election bid winning 523 ECVs to his opponent’s 8.
Ahead of the 1940 election, there was still some debate over whether FDR would be running, having given his ally and former Postmaster General James A. Farley only passive hints to go ahead with his campaign. His own Vice President, Texas conservative John Nance Garner, ran for the nomination, causing FDR to channel his relative Theodore and run, believing frontrunner “Cactus Jack” would work to undo many New Deal policies, with the two having drifted far apart politically.
In the end, the nomination was sealed after a staged event, masterminded by Chicago Mayor Ed Kelly, made it seem like an impromptu, grassroots chant broke out. On the first ballot, he won 946-72. He insisted that his VP be the left-wing Democrat Henry A. Wallace, able to convince delegates to choose Wallace or else lose FDR as President.
Seemingly, the electorate was not so hesitant about curtailing the two-term precedent, with Roosevelt winning the 1940 presidential election by 449-82, carrying 38 states, and winning every city over 400,000 residents except Cinnicinatti.
In 1944, Roosevelt was the Democratic Party nominee for the fourth time, seeking a fourth term. The most notable talking point of this convention was the forced removal of FDR’s VP Henry Wallace for the more moderate Senator Harry Truman. With Roosevelt’s ailing health, many suggested that whoever was the VP at this convention could be president had FDR not been able to serve out the entirety of his term. Taking place during World War Two, Roosevelt was renominated on the first ballot by over 1,000 delegates. He easily won a fourth term defeating Thomas Dewey.
He would die less than three months into his fourth term, serving for a record 12 years.
The 22nd Amendment
During the tenure of successor Harry S. Truman, the 22nd Amendment was ratified, barring any presidents from serving more than two terms.
In the over 150 years between the Philadelphia Convention and the 22nd Amendment, NPR reports over 200 pieces of legislation was introduced in Congress to formally recognise the two-term cap. In 1875, for example, the House passed a resolution endorsing the two-term limit, noting departure from this would be “unwise, unpatriotic, and fraught with peril to our free institutions.”
Opposition to a third term was widespread. As mentioned, Roosevelt’s Vice President John Nance Garner ran against FDR in 1940 whilst his opponent that year, Democrat-turned-Republican Wendell Willkie focused much of his campaign on opposing breaking the three-term principle. 1944 rival Thomas Dewey called for a constitutional amendment limiting the president to two terms, stating that: “four terms or sixteen years is the most dangerous threat to our freedom ever proposed.”
In the 1946 Midterm elections, Republicans gained control of both the House and Senate.
Upon formation of the 80th Congress, the third term was a priority issue, with the House passing 285-121. A notable number of Democrats, largely southerners, voted with the Republicans. Conservative Senator Robert A. Taft added a provision relating to the Vice President’s position. 16 Democrats voted in favour, bringing the vote count to 59-23.
Sent to the states for ratification, Maine became the first to do so in March 1947. The necessary supermajority for ratification was passed once adopted by the state of Minnesota in early 1951. By the end of 1951, 41/48 of the states had approved the proposed amendment.
The text of the 22nd Amendment read: “No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once.”
Passed during Truman’s tenure, it did not apply to the incumbent although President Truman decided to stand down after nearly two full terms in 1952 after some of the lowest polling approval ratings in US history.
Since its passing, the amendment has been met with criticism. Truman himself called it “stupid” and “one of the worst [amendments] that has been put into the Constitution.” Elsewhere, popular presidents have opposed the measure, such as Ronald Reagan who thought such policy was undemocratic while Bill Clinton called for the allowance of non-consecutive terms to account for longer life expectancies.
Nonetheless, in today’s highly partisan political environment – like it or not – the 22nd Amendment seems like it is here to stay.
GRIFFIN KAYE.